Tue., Apr. 28 notes

Here is a comparison of the actual scales

There's also a much more detailed set of guidelines for determining the EF scale rating from a survey of tornado. Different objects and structures react differently when subjected to tornado (or microburst) strength winds.

The EF scale has 28 "damage indicators" that can be examined to determine tornado intensity. You can think of these as being different types of structures or object that could be damaged by lightning.. Examples include:

Damage Indicator	Description
2	1 or 2 family residential home
3	Mobile home (single wide)
10	Strip mall
13	Automobile showroom
22	Service station canopy
26	Free standing light pole
27	Tree (softwood)

Then for each indicator is a standardized list of "degrees of damage" that an investigator can look at to estimate the intensity of the tornado. For a 1 or 2 family home for example

degree of damage	description	approximate wind speed (MPH)
1	visible damage	65
2	loss of roof covering material	80
3	broken glass in doors & windows	95
4	lifting of roof deck, loss of more than 20% of roof material, collapse of chimney, garage doors collapse inward, destruction of porch roof or carport	100
5	house slides off foundation	120
6	large sections of roof removed, most walls still standing	120
7	exterior walls collapse (top story)	130
8	most interior walls collapse (top story)	150
9	most walls in bottom floor collapse except small interior rooms	150
10	total destruction of entire building	170

You'll find the entire set of damage indicators and lists of degrees of damage here.

Here's some recent video of damage being caused by a tornado as it happened (caught on surveillance video). The tornado struck West Liberty, Kentucky on March 2, 2012.

Here are photographs of some actual tornado damage and the EF Scale rating that was assigned to each

EF2 Damage roof is gone, but all walls still standing	EF4 Damage only the strong reinforced concrete basement walls (part of the wall was below ground) are left standing. It doesn't look like there would have been anywhere in this building that would have provided protection from a tornado this strong.	EF5 Damage complete destruction of the structure

At this point we watched the last of the tornado video tapes. It showed a tornado that occurred in Pampa, Texas (here are a couple of videos that I found on YouTube: video 1, video 2, they're missing the commentary that was on the video shown in class). Near the end of the segment, video photography showed several vehicles (pick up trucks and a van) that had been lifted 100 feet or so off the ground and were being thrown around at 80 or 90 MPH by the tornado winds. Winds speeds of about 250 MPH were estimated from the video photography (though the wind speeds were measured above the ground and might not have extended all the way to the ground).

Multiple vortex tornadoes
And finally, something that was initially something of a puzzle to tornado researchers.

Several levels of damage (EF1 to about EF3) are visible in the photograph above. It was puzzling initially how some homes could be nearly destroyed while a home nearby or in between was left with only light damage. One possible explanation is shown below.

Some big strong tornadoes may have smaller more intense "suction vortices" that spin around the center of the tornado (they would be hard to see because of all the dust in the tornado cloud. Tornado researchers have actually seen the damage pattern shown above scratched into the ground by the multiple vortices in a strong tornado.

The sketch above shows a tornado located SW of a neighborhood. As the tornado sweeps through the neighborhood, the suction vortex will rotate around the core of the tornado.

The homes marked in red would be damaged severely. The others would receive less damage. Just one suction vortex was used here, there are usually several. But the tornado diameter is probably larger than shown here.

Lightning

Lightning kills just under 100 people every year in the United States (more than tornadoes or hurricanes but less than flooding, summer heat and winter cold) and is the cause of about 30% of all power outages.

In the western United States, lightning starts about half of all forest fires. Lightning caused fires are a particular problem at the beginning of the thunderstorm season in Arizona. At this time the air underneath thunderstorms is still relatively dry. Rain falling from a thunderstorm will often evaporate before reaching the ground (virga). Lightning then strikes dry ground, starts a fire, and there isn't any rain to put out or at least slow the spread of the fire. This is so called dry lightning. Strong downdraft winds from the thunderstorm can help the fire grow and spread.

We'll be concerned with the lightning produced by thunderstorms but it has also be observed in dust storms and volcanic eruptions such as in these other worldly pictures of the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in Iceland. And the pictures from the Calbuco volcano in Chile.

A typical summer thunderstorm in Tucson is shown in the figure above (p. 165 in the photocopied ClassNotes). Even on the hottest day in Tucson in the summer a large part of the middle of the cloud is found at below freezing temperatures and contains a mixture of super cooled water droplets and ice crystals. This is where precipitation forms and is also where electrical charge is created. Doesn't it seem a little unusual that electricity, static electricity, can be created in the wet interior of a thunderstorm?

1. What produces the electrical charge needed for lightning?
2. Different types of lightning

Collisions between precipitation particles produce the electrical charge needed for lightning. When temperatures are colder than -15 C (above the dotted line in the figure above), graupel becomes negatively charged after colliding with a snow crystal. The snow crystal is positively charged and, because it is smaller and lighter, is carried up toward the top of the cloud by the updraft winds. At temperature warmer than -15 (but still below freezing), the polarities are reversed. A large volume of positive charge builds up in the top of the thunderstorm. A layer of negative charge accumulates in the middle of the cloud. Some smaller volumes of positive charge are found below the layer of negative charge. Positive charge also builds up in the ground under the thunderstorm (it is drawn there by the large layer of negative charge in the cloud).

A couple of interesting things can happen at the ground under a thunderstorm. Attraction between positive charge in the ground and the layer of negative charge in the cloud can become strong enough that a person's hair will literally stand on end (see two photos below). This is incidentally a very dangerous situation to be in; I wouldn't wait around for my picture to be taken.

St. Elmo's Fire (corona discharge) is a faint electrical discharge that sometimes develops at the tops of elevated objects during thunderstorms. The link will take you to a site that shows corona discharge. Have a look at the first 3 pictures, they probably resemble St. Elmo's fire. The remaining pictures are probably different phenomena. St. Elmo's fire was first observed coming from the tall masts of sailing ships at sea (St. Elmo is the patron saint of sailors). Sailors in those days were often very superstitious and I suspect they found St. Elmo's fire terrifying.

Air is normally an insulator, but when the electrical attractive forces between the volumes of charge in the cloud gets gets high enough lightning occurs. Most lightning (2/3 rds, maybe even 3/4) stays inside the cloud and travels between the main positive charge center near the top of the cloud and the layer of negative charge in the middle of the cloud; this is intracloud lightning (Pt. 1). About 1/3 rd of all lightning flashes strike the ground. These are called cloud-to-ground discharges (actually negative cloud-to-ground lightning). We'll spend most of the class learning about this particular type of lightning (Pt. 2). It's what kills people and starts forest fires.

Positive polarity cloud to ground lightning (Pt. 3) accounts for a few percent of lightning discharges. Upward lightning is the rarest form of lightning (Pt. 4). We'll look at both of these unusual types of lightning later in the class.

3. Cloud to ground lightning - the stepped leader, upward discharge, and 1st return stroke
A cloud to ground lightning flash is actually a sequence of several separate events.

Most cloud to ground discharges begin with a negatively-charged downward-moving stepped leader (the figure above is on p. 166 in the ClassNotes). A developing channel makes its way down toward the cloud in 50 m jumps that occur every 50 millionths of a second or so. Every jump produces a short flash of light (think of a strobe light dropped from an airplane that flashes on and off as it falls toward the ground). The sketch below shows what you'd see if you were able to photograph the stepped leader on moving film. Every 50 microseconds or so you'd get a new picture of a slightly longer channel displaced slightly on the film (the flash of light would come from the highlighted segments would be captured on film).

Here's an actual slow motion movie (video not film) of a stepped leader. The video camera used here was able to collect 7207 images per second ( a normal video camera takes 30 images per second). The images were then replayed at a slower rate. 1/8 of a second of lightning is stretched out to about 30 seconds on the video.

As the leader channel approaches the ground strong electrical attraction develops between negative charge in the leader channel and positive charge on the surface of the ground. Several positively charged sparks develop and move upward toward the stepped leader. One of these will intercept the stepped leader and close the connection between negative charge in the cloud and positive charge on the ground.

Here's a sketch of one of the best photographs ever taken of an upward connecting discharge (the actual image is copyrighted so I can't stick it in the ClassNotes).

You can see the actual photograph on the photographers homepage. There were at least 3 upward discharges initiated by the approach of the stepped leader (1, 2, and 3 in the sketch). Streamer 1 connected to the bottom of the stepped leader. It isn't clear where the exact junction point was. The downward branching at Point 4 indicates that was part of the descending stepped leader. A very faint upward discharge can be seen at Point 3. Here's another more recent photograph (click on Galleries on the bar near the top of the page, then click on Lightning Gallery 1). We'll learn later in the class that a lightning flash often consists of several strikes to the ground that occur in less than 1 second. You can clearly see separate ground strikes in this photo.

4. Lightning rods
Lightning rods (invented by Benjamin Franklin) make use of the upward connecting discharge.

Houses with and without lightning rods are shown above. When lightning strikes the house without a lightning rod at left the powerful return stroke travels into the house destroying the TV and possibly starting the house on fire. With a lightning rod, an upward discharge launched off the top of the lightning rod intercepts the stepped leader and safely carries the lightning current through a thick wire around the house and into the ground. Lightning rods do work and they have changed little since their initial development in the 1700s. Most of the newer buildings on campus are protected with lightning rods. If you look carefully at the roof of Old Main, which was recently remodeled, you'll see lightning rods.

The connection between the stepped leader and the upward discharge creates a "short circuit" between the charge in the cloud and the charge in the ground.

A powerful current travels back up the channel from the ground toward the cloud. This is the 1st return stroke. Large currents (typically 30,000 amps in this 1st return stroke) heat the air to around 30,000K (5 times hotter than the surface of the sun which is 6000 K) which causes the air to explode. When you hear thunder, you are hearing the sound produced by this explosion.

The figure below summarizes what we've covered so far in simplified form

Does lightning travel upward or downward? The answer is it does both. It starts with a downward leader than is followed by an upward moving return stroke.

Many cloud-to-ground flashes end at this point. In about 50% of cloud to ground discharges, the stepped leader-upward discharge-return stroke sequence repeats itself (multiple times) with a few subtle differences. That's covered below.

5. Multiple strokes flashes - dart leaders and subsequent return strokes

A downward dart leader travels from the cloud to the ground. The dart leader doesn't step but travels smoothly and follows the channel created by the stepped leader (avoiding the branches). It is followed by a slightly less powerful subsequent return stroke that travels back up the channel to the cloud. This second stroke might be followed by a third, a fourth, and so on. The subsequent return stroke channel usually doesn't have branches.

Here's a stepped leader-upward connecting discharge-return stroke animation (you'll see the stepped leader, upward discharges, and the first return stroke. Two additional subsequent strokes are shown without the dart leader).

The sketch above and the photo below show a multiple stroke flash consisting of 4 separate return strokes. There is enough time between separate return strokes (around 1/20th to 1/10th of a second) that your eye can separate the individual flashes of light. Separate return strokes cause the flickering you sometimes see when looking at lightning.

6. Positive lightning

We've been looking at strikes that originate in the negative charge center is a thunderstorm (discharge at left in figure above). Occasionally a lightning stroke will travel from the positive charge region in the top of the thunderstorm cloud to ground (shown at right in the figure above). These types of strikes are more common at the ends of storms and in winter storms. This is probably because the top part of the cloud gets pushed sideways away from the middle and bottom portions of the cloud. Positive strokes are very powerful. They sometimes produce an unusually loud and long lasting clap of thunder.

7. Upward lightning

Here's an even rarer form of lightning. Lightning sometimes starts at the ground and travels upward. Upward lightning is generally only initiated by mountains and tall objects such as a skyscraper or a tower of some kind (the Empire State Building is struck many times every year but lightning and usually it's lightning that the building itself caused).

Note the discharge is different in another way also. These discharges are initiated by an upward leader. This is not followed by a return stroke, like you might expect, but by a more normal downward leader. Once the 2nd leader reaches the ground, an upward return stroke travels back up the channel to the cloud.

8. Rocket triggered lightning

The fact that lightning could begin with an upward discharge that begins at the ground led (French) scientists to develop a technique to trigger lightning by firing a small rocket up toward a thunderstorm. The rocket is connected by a thin wire to the ground. When the rocket gets 50 to 100 m above the ground an upward streamer will develop off of the top of the wire. Once the streamer reaches the cloud it can initiate a "normal" series of downward dart leaders and upward subsequent return strokes.

Scientists are able to take closeup photographs and make measurements of lightning currents using triggered lightning. Triggered lightning can also be used to test the operation of lightning protection devices.

Here's a link to the video that was showed in class.

The abbreviation NLDN that you'll see at the start of the video stands for National Lightning Detection Network. The headquarters of this company is located here in Tucson.

In the first 1:30 of the video you'll see natural lightning occurring in the Tucson area during the summer (both intracloud and cloud to ground discharges). Look for the flickering that means multiple return strokes in a flash.

Between 1:30 and about 2:00 you'll see lightning activity photographed at the Grand Canyon. Lightning at the Grand Canyon preferentially strikes the edges of the canyon, a location to avoid if you're there during a thunderstorm.

Next, between about 2:00 and 2:40 photographs of lightning striking large wind turbines in Kansas. A lightning strike to one of the turbine blades can cause damage that is very expensive to repair. At 2:16 and again at about 2:24 you'll see very bright lightning flashes that momentarily overexpose the video. These are probably positive cloud to ground discharges. And look carefully at the discharge that occurs between about 2:28 and 2:31 on the video. Notice the upward pointing branching. This was an upward discharge initiated by one of the wind turbines.

The remainder of the video shows rocket triggered lightning. These experiments were done at the International Center for Lightning Research and Testing (ICLRT) run by the University of Florida near Gainesville, FL.

A student asked a question, after the video, about what causes the green color that is sometimes seen in photographs of triggered lightning. The answer that is probably from vaporization of the copper wire that is carried upward by the rocket. If you're someone that enjoys watching lightning storms you may remember having seen a green glow when lightning strikes the ground. This is often produced by an exploding transformer on an electric power pole. The copper wire in the transformer is vaporized by the lightning.

The vaporization of different chemical compounds is what gives fireworks their distinctive colors. This link lists some of the chemical compounds and the colors they produce.

9. Fulgurites

When lightning strikes the ground it will often melt the soil (especially sandy soil) and leave behind a rootlike structure called a fulgurite. A fulgurite is just a narrow (1/2 to 1 inch across) segment of melted sand (glass). Click here to see some actual photographs of fulgurites excavated at the University of Florida lightning triggering site.

10. Lightning safety
Lightning is a serious weather hazard. Here are some lightning safety rules that you should keep in mind during thundery weather.

Stay away from tall isolated objects during a lightning storm. You can be hurt or killed just by being close to a lightning strike even if you're not struck directly. Lightning currents often travel outward along the surface of the ground (or in water) rather than going straight down into the ground. Just being close to something struck by lightning puts you at risk. When you hear of someone being struck by lightning and living to tell about it, it was often a nearby rather than a direct strike.

An automobile with a metal roof and body provides good protection from lightning. Many people think this is because the tires insulate the car from the ground. But the real reason cars are safe is that the lightning current will travel through the metal and around the passengers inside. The rubber tires really don't play any role at all. The people in Florida in the video that were triggering lightning with rockets were inside a metal trailer and were perfectly safe. All of the connections made to equipment outside the trailer were done using fiber optics, there were no metal wires entering or leaving the trailer.

You shouldn't use a corded phone or electrical appliances during a lightning storm because lightning currents can follow wires into your home. Cordless phones and cell phones are safe. It is also a good idea to stay away from plumbing as much as possible (don't take a shower during a lightning storm, for example). Vent pipes are connected to the plumbing and go up to the roof of the house which puts them in a perfect location to be struck by lightning.

To estimate the distance to a lightning strike count the number of seconds between the flash of light and when you first hear the thunder. Divide this by 5 to get the distance in miles.

For example, a delay of 15 seconds between the flash of light and the sound of thunder would mean the discharge was 3 miles away. Research studies have shown that about 95% of cloud to ground discharges strike the ground within 5 miles of a point directly below the center of the storm. That's a 10 mile diameter circle and covers the area of a medium size city.

The latest lightning safety recommendation is the 30/30 Rule.

The 30/30 rule
People should seek shelter if the delay between a lightning flash and its thunder is 30 seconds or less
(the lightning is within 6 miles).

People should remain under cover until 30 minutes after the final clap of thunder. The powerful positive strokes often occur at the ends of thunderstorms.